Learning Cycle And Gibb s Reflective Cycle - 1926 Words

Influences on personal learning There are many influences on personal learning and what processes of learning benefits each individual. Some of these learning influences can have an impact, however they can also have benefits for others in a way of an individual sharing their knowledge with another. Within the learning sector there has been many theorists who have created learning cycles, the ones I will be talking about are Kolb’s experiential learning cycle and Gibb’s reflective cycle. Kolb’s experiential learning cycle is a theory that argues that we learn from our experiences of life on a daily basis. Cognitive ability is the way people learn and Kolb believed from an early age we begin to develop a sort of instinctive preference as to the way we process information and use it. Kolb (1984) believes that the process of learning follows a pattern or cycle. Kolb’s cycle is made up of 4 stages; the first stage is concrete experience and Kolb believes that life is full of loads of different experiences that everyone can learn from and whether you are at home, work, school or even out shopping that there was experiences everywhere within those sectors and that it was a way for us to start the learning cycle. The concrete experience is the doing stage, the stage where you have the experience. We then have stage two which is reflective observation, this stage involved looking back at our experiences and reflecting on them. Stage three is the abstract concep tualisation which isShow MoreRelatedLearning Cycle And Gibb s Reflective Cycle1454 Words   |  6 Pagesinfluences on personal learning and what processes of learning benefits each individual. Some of these learning influences can have an impact, however they can also have benefits for others in a way of an individual sharing their knowledge with another. Within the learning sector there has been many theorists who have created learning cycles, the ones I will be talking about are Kolb’s experiential learning cycle and Gibb’s reflective cycle. Kolb’s experiential learning cycle is a theory that arguesRead MoreThe Importance Of Nursing Patients With Multi Resistant Organisms ( Mros )1269 Words   |  6 Pagescare with patients requiring standard and contact precautions using a model of reflection. Reflection is the process in which learners engage to recapture, notice and re-evaluate their experience, to work with their experience and to turn it into learning (Boud et al, 1993). The skill of reflection is essential to the development of clinical knowledge and ability which allows the learner to consider personal and professional skills and identify needs for ongoing development (Levett-Jones et al, 2011)Read MoreReflection On The Business Management Module And Internship Experience By Designing Gibbs Reflective Cycle979 Words   |  4 Pagesbusiness management module and internship experience by incorporating Gibbs reflective cycle. Moreover, this essay also highlighted improvement in skills by getting enrolled in this module. With the intention to make the process of learning updated it is better to rely on the framework proposed by Gibbs (1998) which has mentioned below: Figure 1: Gibb s Reflective Cycle (Gibbs, 1988) Referring to the model of Gibbs reflective cycle, the essay first described the good or bad experiences from the eventRead MoreA Critical Examination Of Professional Learning811 Words   |  4 PagesA critical examination of professional learning in the workplace Introduction Nowadays, facing with great challenges like knowledge and skills to process amounts of information in the workplace, we have to engage ourselves in new learning about professional practice with range of activities, formal and informal (Fraser and Schwind, 2011). In particular, reflection is a significant mechanism in practice-based professional development settings where we can learn from experiences, rather than knowledgeRead MoreReflective Practice : An Essential Attribute For The Development Of Autonomous, Critical And Advanced Practitioners1627 Words   |  7 Pagesprofessional motivator to â€Å"move on and do better with one’s practice†, with the common goal of learning from one’s experiences and examining oneself (Caldwell Grobbel, 2013). According to Chong (2009), â€Å"reflective practice should be a continuous cycle in which experience and reflection on experiences are inter-related†. Reflective practice as a concept of learning, was introduced into many professions in the late 1980’s (Jasper, 2003), and in today’s society it is viewed as an important component of theRead MoreReflection Of A Reflection On Academic Skills1043 Words   |  5 Pagesaround everyone, (Stadter, 2015). Gibbs Reflective Cycle (1988), a framework for students to resolve problems in assignments, step by step, I will reflect on my own problems, (UK Essays, 2013). My previous goal was to study in a university and now that I have accomplished that goal, my next goal is to complete the course with a good grade. But the reality of achieving the Foundation Degree is a much harder concept than what I first thought, having a writer s block can be a hindrance, slowing theRead MoreReflection Of A Reflection On Academic Skills1046 Words   |  5 Pagesaround everyone, (Stadter, 2015). Gibbs Reflective Cycle (1988), a framework for students to resolve problems in assignments, step by step, I will reflect on my own problems, (UK Essays, 2013). My previous goal was to study in a university and now that I have accomplished that goal, my next goal is to complete the course with a strong grade. But the reality of achieving the Foundation Degree is a much harder concept than what I first thought, having a writer s block can be a hindrance, slowing theRead MoreNhs For National Health Services Essay1407 Words   |  6 Pagescertain qualities.Right values and attitude,key skills,knowledge and strong work ethic are the necessary requirements of a healthcare professional.Healthcare professionals can also use reflective practices for personal and professional development in their respective field.Reflective practice is a way of learning from your own personal experiences and then improve the way you work in your respective field.At the time of its foundation,NHS was based on three core principles; that it meets the needsRead MoreDtlls Study Skills Assignment Essay1712 Words   |  7 Pagesin Teaching in the Lifelong Learning Sector. In it I will discuss my personal approach to study and the study skills I need to use on the programme. The essay will highlight the skills I feel are my current strengths and draw attention to the areas I need to develop. I will briefly describe and evaluate some different reflective models and in relation to these explain the type of reflective model I use and how this helps me to understand how I can improve my learning experience and my study skillsRead MoreHealth Care Act And 2014 Safeguarding Policy1593 Words   |  7 PagesContribution to Healthcare practice from the 2014 Care Act and 2014 Safeguarding Policy, considering the values necessary for health care practice and how reflective practise contributes to the development of these in the healthcare professional. The NHS has been servicing the nation since its inception on 1948 and it is famous the world over. Prior to the NHS we had no public health care if you wanted to see a doctor you had to pay, there was a small provision for the poorest in the Poor Law 1601

Cross Cultural Communication - 1730 Words

Cross Cultural Communication Mohamed Elamin Date: 02/23/2011 City University of Seattle Abstract This paper is about comparing and contrasting the American style of communication and that of Bahrain. Different countries have their own interpretation for every single issue based on their culture background and their way of thinking. The most significant characteristics of American culture are: individualism, equality, competition, freedom and privacy, action orientation, directness, particularity, and a problem solving orientation. In Bahrain is somewhat the same as other Arab countries, religion faith and local traditions play a large role in the people’s lives, although Bahrain constitution is more liberal compared with other†¦show more content†¦(Nussbaum, 2005, par 6) In Bahrain people are conservative and they do not like unexpected events. Therefore they do a lot of plans to stay away from troubles. Also no one likes to take decision alone they usually looking for consultancies form other. Moreover their social traditions not accept unexpected actions or eve nts. Americans obey rules most of the time, but they see rules as someone else s idea of how they should do things. They think the rule might have been appropriate in some other situation but it might not be appropriate for their situation now. Therefore they break it and do what they think is a better idea. Though Americans say, Rules are made to be broken, but they never say, Laws are made to be broken. Laws are official legal â€Å"and they proudly claim that in America, No one is above the law. (Nussbaum, 2005, par 9) In Bahrain popular people obey the rules, otherwise they will under the risk of detention. But people who belong to the royal family and those are very rich, they do not care about rules or even law they always break the law with any kind of accountability. In general, establishing business in Bahrain is straightforward. The government of Bahrain vigorously seeks to increase foreign direct investment in Bahrain especially from the United States and western countries. On other hand according to my own experience I notice that people who from Southeast AsiaShow MoreRelatedCross Cultural Communication And Communication744 Words   |  3 PagesCross-cultural communication is increasingly recognized as a major barrier to leveraging intellectual assets globally. The importance of cross-cultural competency has been identified in numerous areas of business, and strategies are continually developed to improve cultural awareness and effective communication and collaboration. It is important to first establish what is meant by culture and communication. Munter defines culture as consisting of â€Å"values, attitudes, and behavior in a given groupRead MoreCross Cultural Communication : Communication2036 Words   |  9 Pagesbetween cultures and wanting to promote cross-cultural communication. Promoting interaction between different cultures has its advantages, but it also takes a great amount of time and research to be successful in cross-cultural communication (Barker). Not having a strong cross-cultural understanding will inhibit companies from being able to compete with their competition due to lack of concern for other cultural differences around the world. Cross-cultural communication is no longer an option where oneRead MoreCommunication And Cross Cultural Communication1834 Words   |  8 Pageshuman day-to-day conversation of cross cultural communication. To effectively and appropriately communicate with an individual of a different culture an individual need s to fully understand the beliefs, norms and stereotypes affiliated with the culture. The process of learning a language accompanies the positives and negatives of what is acceptable within the culture in the context of communication. To equip and guide the learner, simultaneously diffusing cultural assumptions which are consideredRead MoreCross Cultural Communication9880 Words   |  40 PagesCross Cultural Communication: Far East Asian Countries This paper gives a short overview of the observed behavioral pattern across some of the far east Asian countries. Understanding these behavioral patterns is important for doing effective communication with people/people group from these countries. The effective communication holds one of the key of establishing business and personal relationship in these countries. This paper also looks into some of concepts and theories in intercultural andRead MoreCross- Cultural Communication2005 Words   |  9 Pagesin the same boat.- Bernard Baruch Cross-cultural communication is the process of exchanging meaningful and unambiguous information across cultural boundaries, in a way that preserves mutual respect and minimizes antagonism, that is, it looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds endeavour to communicate. The study of cross-cultural communication was originally found within businesses and the government both seeking to expand globally. Communication is interactive, so an important influenceRead MoreCross Cultural Communication : Communication2092 Words   |  9 PagesTianli Yuan 1043313 Assignment-A1 Cross-cultural communication I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. -----------Martin Luther King Communication is the transference and the understanding of meaning, it is also an activity that conveying meaning through a shared system of signs and semiotic rules. By commutingRead MoreCultural Background Of Cross Cultural Communication1328 Words   |  6 Pages Introduction Culture is defined by the behavior and knowledge of a specific group of people, such as language, religion and customs. Cross cultural communication studies how people from different countries, social status, and upbringing interact with each other In this new era of globalization cross cultural communication in organization it is not no longer a theory because of all the transformation that are happening are in the world we live in. People from different backgroundsRead MoreImpact Of Communication On Cross Cultural Communication911 Words   |  4 PagesCultural differences can negatively impact effective communication thus companies need to train employees on cross-cultural communication. Companies not trained in cultural differences run the risk of ruining a business deal or relationship. Mukherjee and Ramos-Salazar (2014) mentioned, â€Å"The key to global business success depends on effective cross-cultural etiquette and global workforce diversity management† (p.18). Companies that understand differences between cultures have a competitive advantageRead MoreCross Cultural Communication Skills And Communication1318 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction This paper will give a brief overview and then analyze the different cross cultural communication skills, including; oral, written, formal, informal, verbal and non verbal. It will then compare and contrast two focus areas of cross culture communication; culture and ethics. This paper will then conclude its findings Brief overview of cross-cultural communication skills Oral communication is transmitted through speech. It includes personal conversations, speeches, meetings, telephoneRead MoreImportance of Cross Cultural Communications1209 Words   |  5 PagesEffective cross-cultural communication is one of the most important issues dealt with in business, particularly when a firm operates at an international level. Communication is a process with three key elements, which includes a source, an audience, and a channel. Communication derived from businesses will have listeners that include, but are not limited to customers, employees, suppliers, and the community (Caddy et al.). These listeners contribute to the success of a firm, which is why there is

Biochemistry Fats, Diet, and Heart Disease Free Essays

Biochemistry Fats, Diet, and Heart Disease ‘Fat’ can sometime be a word that gives people the chills when they hear about it. It is one of the three main sources of calories to our diet and a major part of ones dietary requirement. There are three kinds of fat: saturated, polyunsaturated and monounsaturated. We will write a custom essay sample on Biochemistry Fats, Diet, and Heart Disease or any similar topic only for you Order Now The degree of saturation is dependent on the amount of double and triple bonds in the chemical makeup. Saturated fats are known to increase the body’s levels of serum (blood) cholesterol. Along with cholesterol, saturated fats can deposit on the inner walls of blood vessels; a condition known as atherosclerosis. When the heart’s arteries become clogged with cholesterol and fats, blood flow can be restricted or totally blocked, leading to severe chest pain and heart attack. Polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats actually have a cholesterol-lowering effect. By substituting polyunsaturated fats for the saturated fats in your diet, you can actually help control cholesterol levels. Too much dietary fat can also contribute to overweight. Being overweight can aggravate high blood pressure, place excess strain on your heart, and make it more difficult to stay active and physically fit, thus having a negative impact on your overall cardiovascular health. For about three decades, health institutions like the American Heart Association, National Institutes of Health, World Health Organization, and others advised people to reduce dietary fat by limiting fat intake to fewer than 30 percent of daily calories. Their claim was that a low fat diet ultimately resulted in the reduction or elimination of risk for heart disease although; there wasn’t much evidence to support the notion of low-fat diets in the beginning. In an article published in the Journal of the American Medical Association on February 8, 2006, in a 8th year Women’s Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial, about 49,000 women with almost identical rates of heart attack, stroke, and other forms of cardiovascular disease were followed to see the effect of a low-fat diet and those not on the diet. Their results showed that women on the low-fat diet didn’t lose or gain any more weight than women who followed their usual diets. The important thing to note from these kinds of studies was the type of fat in the diet. For example the Mediterrean style diet is high in fat but these fats are from plant sources such as olive oil, nuts and seeds which are low in saturated fat intake. The ‘Western† diet on the other hand has fats from animal sources which are usually saturated and produces a higher risk for heart disease. In conclusion, as research grows on diet and heart disease, it’s becoming clearer that looking at a single nutrient in isolation cannot tell us the whole story about a person’s heart disease risk. People eat foods, not nutrients, and they eat them in an overall dietary pattern. The traditional Mediterranean Diet pattern, in contrast, appears to lower the risk of heart disease, stroke, and metabolic syndrome, a constellation of factors that increases the chances of developing heart disease and diabetes. So if you are concerned about heart health, pay attention to your overall diet, not just to the type of fat. Citation Barbara, H. (2006) et al. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of cardiovascular disease. Journal of the American Medical Association. Retrieved from http://jama. ama-assn. org/content/29 5/6/655. full How to cite Biochemistry Fats, Diet, and Heart Disease, Essay examples

Engineering Graduate Project Progress Report

Question: Discuss about the Engineering Graduate Project for Progress Report. Answer: The entire study on the electromagnetically driven heat pump or else coolers can be divided into five different segments. The second segment includes the study on the literature review concerning the subject and the third section comprises of the determination of the aims and objectives for driving the project. However, the fourth section includes comprehension of the adopted technology for the successful completion of the project. The section five deals with the institution of the suitable system that needs to be implemented for the purpose of experimentation as well as generation of the requisite data. The final segment of the study includes discussion of the outcomes of the study that is acquired after successful completion of the experimentation conducted in the laboratory. The activities that is undertaken so far for the partial completion of the project includes the detailed study of the academic literature as regards the modern acoustic pumps, ascertainment of the aims as well as objectives that directs as well as drives the entire study (Kiss et al. 2012). In addition to this, the activities completed so far in the present research also includes establishment of the appropriate methodology for the successful completion of the project. Furthermore, the partial achievement also includes the institution of the system as well as the entire set up for the laboratory for carrying out the experimentation of the study. Time Frame Activity In Proper Sequence Description Duration (Days) 1. Member selection 7 days 2. Site inspection 14 days 3. Equipment choice 12 days 4. Planning period for carrying out the experiment 10 days 5. Integration of the requisite equipment 20 days 6. Building of the Heat Exchanger 23 days 7. Undertaking the Experiment 7 days The present project has been carried out till the execution of the experimentation. However, the process of interpretation as well as discussion of the results is still left. The schedule that represents the time required for carrying out the required activities is presented in the table above. However, there are changes in the actual time schedule and there is diversion from the initially proposed research proposal. The selection of the members has originally taken less time than what was anticipated that is 7 days instead or 9 days. However, the site survey also takes more time in reality than what was planned before. Likewise, the duration of other activities also differed from proposed time schedule. Objectives as well as scope: Changes The initial aims as well as objectives set for the present study was to acquire deep learning regarding the thermo-acoustic heat pumps and present the overall result as well as evidence in order to establish the feasibility of the entire notion as well as technology. Therefore, the initial aim of the present study was to scrutinize the entire design and at the same time requirements of the thermo-acoustic pump. The study has been conducted so far are in line with the initially proposed aims as well as objectives for the project. However, the present project also includes the conduction of the project with a need for the inclusion of different section devoted to the measurement of the performance of the system with respect to different parameters. Therefore, this has led to the objective of the performance enumeration. The objective of the project also includes measurement of the performance as regards the temperature of the cold heat exchanger expressed as a function of the time. In addition to this, the objective of performance measurement also includes enumeration of the temperature of the particular cold heat exchanger as specific function of heat and measurement of the COP and COPR as a function of the entire heat load for three different drive-ratio (Matveev 2015). Therefore, it can be hereby stated that no alterations of the aims and objectives are necessary for the conduction of the project on the thermo-acoustic pump. Description about the investigation The present study has been partially completed until the completion of the experimentation in the laboratory. The members required for the conduction of the study has been selected within the 7 days of the study. In addition to this, the progress also includes detailed inspection of the site within the 14 days and the selection of the equipment within 12 days. Furthermore, the progress made also includes the plan and preparation for execution of the experiment. Again, the progress in the investigation also includes the assimilation of different equipment, construction of the heat exchanger and conduction of the experiment (Chen et al. 2013). The result observed until this stage reflects the fact that the COPR has been held as the association between the drive ratio all through low temperature that is maintained 50 degree centigrade from three more values of high temperatures (Kiss et al. 2012). The COPR that is essentially equal to around 120 C. The results of the experiment replicat es the fact that at a temperature of 80 C, the COPR roughly 26% was attained for the particular drive ratio in the lower temperature in addition to the higher temperatures. Again, during the course of experimentation, it was perceived that the wastage of the generated heat essentially originated from the heat exchanger and in addition to this, the conformation can be regarded as the primary reason of loss of heat from the overall system. In addition to this, there are other observations concerning the buffer tube of around 7 . The additional half angle can also be put to use for the purpose of the reduction of the overall acoustic losses at diverse cross-section of the entire system that can be useful in raising the overall efficacy of the system. Methodology The methodology for the present study expounds the use of the sound as well as the acoustic power in the thermpo-acoustic heat pump for the purpose of the transfer of the heat from the low level temperature to the higher level of the temperature. Again, the particular acoustic waves with low temperature get augmented for the purpose of generation of the requisite results. The present concept can be applied for both the heating as well as cooling. The methodology for the purpose of the review of the entire system involves the examination of the overall technology and the workings procedure of the equipments. Thereafter, the study of the methodology also involves the study of the amalgamation of the thermo-acoustic technology operated by the electric motor along with the workings of the distillation column of the particular plant (Yang et al. 2014). In addition to this, the methodology also involves the stirling cycle and the detailed illustration of the thermo-acoustic pump, its syste m, examination of the heat exchanger (Buis et al. 2014). In addition to this, the methodology also includes the process of examination of different parts of the thermo-acoustic pump that includes the motor, regenerator, heat exchanger, feedback inheritance and the compliance with the system (Bade et al. 2013). Up-to-date Literature Review The activity completed in the study in the literature review includes the study of the academic literature on the system of the thermo-acoustic pump that illustrates the entire system of the working of the pump and the process of implementation of the application of the same. The activities completed in this phase of the study of the body of the empirical evidences as well as body of academic literature also includes the study of the phenomena of the thermo-acoustic pump, thermo-acoustic concepts for the enhancement of the system of the refrigeration systems, system of air conditioning process presented by the Howard University of Adelaide. The up-to-date review of the body of academic literature that has been carried out so far includes examination of different nature as well as characteristics and at the same time the design of the cooler, study of the detailed description of the cooler. The study of the literature completed so far includes the schematic illustration of the thermo-acoustic stirling cooler, study on the linear motor, acoustic network, regenerator as well as heat exchangers (Zalluhoglu and Olgac 2015). In addition to this, the review of the body of the academic literature that has been conducted so far includes the study of the instrumentation, powers and study performance indicators. This section on the literature review includes the performance measurements system with respect to different parameters such as enumeration of the temperature of the cold heat exchanger with respect to time and function of the heat cold. Interaction with the supervisor and the group so far The interaction with the supervisor as well as the group so far refers to different things that need to be discussed with the supervisor of the research. The interactions with the supervisors for the discussion of the project can be divided into different stages. The first stage of the interaction dealt with the selection of the main article for the research. Thereafter, the second stage of the interface with the supervisor of the research projects regarding the selection of the route for the current study that in turn helped in determination of the modus operandi for the successful completion of the project (Alemany et al. 2015). Consequently, the third stage of the interaction dealt with the establishment of the research questions or else the hypotheses for the research project and the determination of the key objectives of the project. In addition to this, the interaction with the supervisor of the project also includes discussion regarding the assessment point and thereafter gene ration of the theoretical case (Alemany et al. 2015). Thereafter, the discussion regarding the research also includes setting the appropriate stratagem for conduction of the research and for arriving at the desired results. Furthermore, the discussion with the supervisor also included determination of the assessment point and method for collection as well as analysis of the data and finally the evaluation of the process of the write up. The table below can succinctly present the interaction with the supervisor regarding what and how the interaction can facilitate the entire process of conduction of the study: Meeting stages Discussion Topic Subject Matter Duration Initial Establishment of the main article for conduction of the research Selection of the route for the conduction of the experiment Selection of the research questions or else the research hypotheses The feasibility of the study on the electromagnetically driven heat pump or else the cooler Establishment of the five different phases of the study Primary objectives of the study that includes the study on thermo-acoustic heat pumps and interpretation of the outcomes and evidence in order to ascertain the viability of the entire notion (Liu and Yang 2014) Meeting 1: Assessment phase Ways of development of different theoretical model for the research. In addition to this, the measurement procedures as well as performance also include the instrumentation, power as well as performance indicators (COP, COPC and COPR) (Wu et al. 2012). The discussion on the assessment phase also includes the determination of the research strategy. This discussion also included the study of the nature and design of the cooler, linear motors, resonators, acoustic network and regenerator as well as heat exchangers (DalkÄ ±ran et al. 2016). The majority of the discussion in the meeting included the discussion of the research strategy. This helps in determination of the research design, discussion of the method of research establishment of the sampling strategy. The discussion also involved gaining advice on the research strategy that can adhere to the ethical guidelines of the university Meeting 2 Presentation of the overall procedure for enumeration The supervisor can help the researcher in gaining advice regarding the intricacies of the experiment conducted in the laboratory. This is regarding the illustration of the heat pumps, set up for the experiment and the validity of the procedures of the measurement and performance indicators among many others (DalkÄ ±ran et al. 2016). Meeting 3 Challenges faced and ways to address the identified challenges The challenges that are faced during the process of conduction of the research study include the certain limitations of the thermo-acoustic pumps that include the low power high volume ratio. In addition to this, the thermo-acoustics also have very high density of the functional fluids that are imperative for the purpose of attainment of the high power densities. Furthermore, the challenges of the study also include utilization of the expensive alternators that can give satisfactory performance. The process of the heat exchange particularly in the oscillating media is under wide research. Again, the hot heat exchanger has to shift heat to the stack as well as the cold heat exchanger has to continue the temperature gradient throughout the stack (DalkÄ ±ran et al. 2016). However, the vacant space for the same is controlled with the miniature size and the obstruction it attaches to the entire path of the wave. In addition to this, the process of exchanging the heat in the thermo a coustics is primarily critical for the purpose of maintenance of the power conservation procedure. Modified Project Plan and Timeline The modified plan for the project therefore includes different activities in the project with the attached timeframe. However, even though the objective along with the proposed procedure of the project did not change, the real timeline for the successful, completion of each stage of the stage altered. The altered schedule or else the timeframe for the project can be presented in the table below: Activity In Proper Sequence Description Duration (Days) 8. Member selection 7 days 9. Site inspection 14 days 10. Equipment choice 12 days 11. Planning period for carrying out the experiment 10 days 12. Integration of the requisite equipment 20 days 13. Building of the Heat Exchanger 23 days 14. Undertaking the Experiment 7 days 15. Evaluating the outcomes of experiment 6 days 16. Data Generation and submission 2 days Final Technical Paper The journal paper on study of thermo-acoustic Stirling coolers penned by M.E.H Tijani and S. Spoelstra are also recognized as reputable journals on this subject with HERDSA impact factor. The present journal expounds in detail the investigation of the travelling wave coolers along with the design, development along with the process of measurement (Tijani and Spoelstra 2013). In addition to this, the journal article on Thermo acoustic-Stirling heat pump for domestic application penned by Srinivas Vanapalli, M.E.H Tijani and S. Spoelstra also helps in understanding the importance of the burner driven heat pump. This equipment can meet up the domestic requirements for heat and lead towards the substantial savings of the energy in comparison to the conventional gas burners (Wang et al. 2015). This article too helps in gaining deep insight into different prototype design as well as construction and the environment for test as well as the infrastructure. This two journal articles can be r eferred for the present study that bears high relevance to the present area of research. References Alemany, A., Prez-Barrera, J., Prez-Espinoza, J.E., Ortiz, A. and Ramos, E., 2015. Special issue: Selected papers of the 9th PAMIR International Conference``Thermo Acoustic and Space Technologies'', Riga, Latvia, June 16--20, 2014.Magnetohydrodynamics,51, p.2. Bade, S., Wagner, M., Hirsch, C., Sattelmayer, T. and Schuermans, B., 2013. Design for thermo-acoustic stability: Procedure and database.Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power,135(12), p.121507. Buis, E.J., Doppenberg, E.J.J., Nieuwland, R.A. and Toet, P.M., 2014. Fibre laser hydrophones for cosmic ray particle detection.Journal of Instrumentation,9(03), p.C03051. CHEN, B., ABAKR, Y.A., Goh, J.H. and Riley, P.H., 2013. DEVELOPMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF A SCORE DEMO2. 1 THERMO-ACOUSTIC ENGINE.Journal of Engineering Science and Technology,8(2), pp.253-263. DalkÄ ±ran, A., AÄ ±kkalp, E. and SavaÃ…Å ¸, A.F., 2016. Analysis of a nano-scale thermo-acoustic refrigerator.International Journal of Refrigeration,66, pp.1-9. DalkÄ ±ran, A., AÄ ±kkalp, E. and SavaÃ…Å ¸, A.F., 2016. Analysis of a nano-scale thermo-acoustic refrigerator.International Journal of Refrigeration,66, pp.1-9. Kiss, A.A., Landaeta, S.J.F. and Ferreira, C.A.I., 2012. Mastering heat pumps selection for energy efficient distillation.Chem. Eng. Trans,29(2012), pp.397-402. Kiss, A.A., Landaeta, S.J.F. and Ferreira, C.A.I., 2012. Towards energy efficient distillation technologiesmaking the right choice.Energy,47(1), pp.531-542. Liu, Y.W. and Yang, P., 2014. Influence of inner diameter and position of phase adjuster on the performance of the thermo-acoustic Stirling engine.Applied Thermal Engineering,73(1), pp.1141-1150. Matveev, K.I., 2015. Thermoacoustic Oscillations in Resonators.à Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ½Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¼Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã‚ ¸ à Ã‚ ²Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ±Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ °,2(1), pp.6-13. Tijani, M.E.H. and Spoelstra, S., 2013. A hot air driven thermoacoustic-Stirling engine.Applied Thermal Engineering,61(2), pp.866-870. Wang, H., Zhou, J., Pan, Y. and Wang, N., 2015. Experimental investigation on the onset of thermo-acoustic instability of supercritical hydrocarbon fuel flowing in a small-scale channel.Acta Astronautica,117, pp.296-304. Wu, F., Li, Q., Guo, F.Z. and SHU, A.Q., 2012. Advance in thermoacoustic theory.Journal of Wuhan Institute of Technology,34(1), pp.1-6. Yang, P., Fang, M. and Liu, Y.W., 2014. Optimization of a Phase Adjuster in a Thermo-acoustic Stirling Engine Using Response Surface Methodology.Energy Procedia,61, pp.1772-1775. Zalluhoglu, U. and Olgac, N., 2015. Thermo-acoustic instability: Theory and experiments.IFAC-PapersOnLine,48(12), pp.75-80.

There are a lot many descriptions for the word dialectic Essay Example For Students

There are a lot many descriptions for the word dialectic Essay Dialectic is a variety of languages, conceivably a sort of a composition of the languages in this variety. The word comes from Ancient Greek dialektos, which is derived from dialegesthai, meaning to discourse, converse, and talk. By this root of the word, in this context, I deduce that Dialectics is a method in which people from different walks of life, contained by different personal philosophies languages are set together to discuss on a single word, sentence, thought, topic etc. explaining their personal views supported by logical reasons defending their argument. This discussion is meant to have all the possible view points on that particular subject with in a group of people and finally to deduce a definition for the subject which is acceptable by all the individuals involved. The ultimate goal for having Dialectic seems to search for the real the truth. We will write a custom essay on There are a lot many descriptions for the word dialectic specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Socratic Dialectical Method Well for this I think first we should know what nature Socrates had, it will help us knowing the uniqueness of Socrates method. Socrates was a man of the Periclean age, which witnessed one of the periodic bankruptcies of science. Cosmological speculation, which had been boldly pursued from the beginning of the 6th century, seemed to have led to a chaos of conflicting systems of thought. People had turned away from pursue of science and concentrated themselves not with truth but with making a successful human life. In this time of chaos and individualism, Socrates was the most realistic person in sight. He was always searching for more than the meanings of things already had. He wanted proof of what was defined, proof which would give logical reasons for it self. He was an inquirer, unsatisfied and still looking for truth. Unlike others he was not self-centered, always ready to be corrected. His nature of being broad minded reflected his way of teaching people, which actually seems to be learning by them. This is the beauty of his method, called as The Socratic Dialectical Method. Procedure Socrates did not call people towards him self, he went out towards them and asked them their views instead of lecturing and forcing his thoughts on them. It was a dialogue form discussion, where individuals brought up their view points on a particular subject set by Socrates. On one side there was Socrates playing the role of the enquirer, asking the questions and on the other side the conversant with whom the conversation was being held, would submit to answer Socrates questions. It was actually a test of the beliefs one had by questioning them about it. Socrates let the other speak first and as he spoke Socrates brought up questions for him out of his arguments, picking up threads out of what he spoke. The primary question is not always the first question which is  raised more for dramatic purposes. Socrates persuades his conversant into teaching him the meaning of a virtue by the use of Socratic irony: that he does not know the truth but his friend must be wise and clever so that he can teach Socrates the meaning of virtue. The conversant answers Socrates primary questions by stating a definition that is to be examined by a number of secondary questions. The secondary questions often are intended to find internal inconsistencies in the definition or conclusions that are inconsistent with other views held by the conversant or by the majority of mankind. When Socrates explains these inconsistencies he formulates a refutation Greek: elenchos of the definition after several further attempts to define the subject, Socrates conversant admits that he does not know or that he now knows that he does not know. One by one all the participants of the discussion are questioned of their beliefs. Finally comes up Socrates himself, though to a higher extent he may be already knew the real truth about what the discussion was but now he knows also what others think. Here comes the ability to deduce out of all these the real and actual on which all will have to agree, unarguable and non-disagreeable because what it will b e, will be all and all out of what the people have spoken themselves. Now, Socrates end up the discussion with a new definition of the topic, a definition deduced by all of the peoples knowledge and his ability to scrutinize and extract the real these views contained. .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b , .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b .postImageUrl , .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b , .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b:hover , .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b:visited , .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b:active { border:0!important; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b:active , .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud37e4e4a519c98c86244b46f2a112e0b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Metropolitan Museum of Art EssayAll the way through this conversation some steps took places, which are listed below: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Conversation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Concepts à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Methodological Doubt à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Induction à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Deduction Out of these the two major approaches that help the decision are; Methodic doubt no one is right and Deduction à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" everyones right side contributes to the final right. Briefly defining notes on both follow. Methodic Doubt A way of searching for certainty, systematically, though tentatively, doubting everything. First, all statements are classified according to type and source of knowledgeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ e.g., knowledge from tradition, empirical knowledge, and mathematical knowledge. Then, examples from each class are examined. If a way can be found to doubt the truth of any statement, then all other statements of that type are also set aside as dubitable. The doubt is methodic because it assures systematic completeness, but also because no claim is made that allà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ or even that anyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ statements in a dubitable class are really false or that one must or can distrust them in an ordinary sense. The method is to set aside as conceivably false all statements and types of knowledge that are not indubitably true. The hope is that, by eliminating all statements and types of knowledge the truth of which can be doubted in any way, one will find some indubitable certainties. Deductive Approach In logic, a rigorous proof, or derivation, of one statement the conclusion from one or more statements the premisesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ i.e., a chain  of statements, each of which is either a premise or a consequence of a statement occurring earlier in the proof. This usage is a generalization of what the Greek philosopher Aristotle called the syllogism, but a syllogism is now recognized as merely a special case of a deduction. Also, the traditional view that deduction proceeds from the general to the specific or from the universal to the particular has been abandoned as incorrect by most logicians. Some experts regard all valid inference as deductive in form and, for this and other reasons reject the supposed contrast between deduction and induction. See also axiomatic method; formal system; inference. Negative Positive Socrates procedure is a negative kind of thing-it aims to find what is wrong with a belief. If a belief fails, it obviously should be rejected-either completely, or reformulated in light of their failures. However, if a belief survives questioning, we should accept it provisionally: we dont know that it is wrong, but we also dont know that it is right. A future round of questions may be its undoing. Yet it seems to be an inductive quality and has made the Socratic Method the basic of all scientific methods today. Note: Methodic Doubt, Deductive Approach and Negative Positive, all are extracts from various sources with slight changes.

Donts for Getting Letters of Recommendation for Graduate School

Donts for Getting Letters of Recommendation for Graduate School Writing letters of recommendation is generally part of a faculty members job. Students need these letters to get into graduate schools. Indeed, grad school admissions committees generally wont accept applications that lack these important letters because they reflect the professor or faculty members assessment of a student applicant. Students need not feel powerless in the process because they do, indeed, have a great deal of influence over the letters that faculty members write. While professors rely on a students academic history in writing letters of recommendation, the past isnt all that matters. Professors impressions of you are important too - and impressions constantly change based on your behavior. There are things you should avoid to ensure that the professors you approach for letters see you in a positive light. To avoid problems, dont: Misinterpret a Faculty Members Response Youve asked a faculty member to write you a letter of recommendation. Carefully interpret his response. Often faculty members provide subtle cues that indicate how supportive a letter they will write. Not all letters of recommendation are helpful. In fact, a lukewarm or somewhat neutral letter will do more harm than good. Virtually all letters that graduate admissions committee members read are very positive, usually providing glowing praise for the applicant. However, a letter that is simply good- when compared with extraordinarily positive letters - is actually harmful to your application. Ask faculty  members if they can provide you with a helpful letter of recommendation rather than simply a letter. Push for a Positive Response Sometimes a faculty member will decline your request for a letter of recommendation outright. Accept that. She is doing you a favor because the resulting letter would not help your application and instead would hinder your efforts. Wait Until the Last Minute Faculty members are busy with teaching, service work, and research. They advise multiple students and likely are writing many letters for other students. Give them enough notice so that they can take the time required to write a letter that will get you accepted into graduate school. Approach a faculty member when he has the time to discuss it with you and consider it without time pressure. Dont ask immediately before or after class. Dont ask in a hallway. Instead, visit during the professors office hours, the times intended for interaction with students. It often is helpful to send an email requesting an appointment and explaining the purpose of the meeting. Provide Unorganized or Inaccurate Documentation Have your application materials with you when you request your letter. Or follow up within a couple of days. Provide your documentation all at once. Dont offer a curriculum vitae one day, and a transcript on another. Anything you provide the professor must be free of errors and must be neat. These documents represent you and are an indicator of how serious you view this process as well as the quality of work you will do in grad school. Dont make a professor have to ask you for basic documentation. Forget Submission Materials Include program-specific application sheets and documents, including websites to which faculty submit letters. Dont forget to include login information. Dont make faculty ask for this material. Dont let a professor sit down to write your letter and find that she does not have all of the information. Alternatively, dont let a professor try to submit your letter online and find that she doesnt have the login info. Rush the Professor. A friendly reminder sent a week or two before the deadline is helpful; however, dont rush the professor or offer multiple reminders. Forget to Express Appreciation Your professor took the time to write for you - at minimum an hour of his time - so take the time to thank him, either verbally, or by sending a thank you letter or note. Remember that you want your letter writers to be in a good mood when they write your recommendation and to feel good about you and their decision to support your application to graduate school. Write a thank you note to your recommender and when you ask for another letter in the future (and you will - either for another graduate school program or even a job), the faculty member will be much more likely to write you another helpful and positive recommendation letter.

A response to a book called the emergence of the church By A Patzia Essay

A response to a book called the emergence of the church By A Patzia - Essay Example As part of that background he describes Judaism as it was in first-century Palestine as well as describing what life was like in the rest the Roman empire in general with a well presented exposition of what the Bible says about the growth of Christianity. The early church gained new recruits and spread over a greater geographical despite official persecution after Rome was burnt down, and Nero blamed the Christians for doing so. The books sources are pretty strictly biblical: the Didache is dated at or beyond 100 (p.99), and discussed only at the fringe, and the clearly first-century ROTAS square. In terms of evidence about the development and the eventual emergence of the early church as a distinct religion that was able to spread throughout the Roman Empire not mentioning the ROTAS square is arguably a serious omission. The ROTAS stone was actually found buried in the remains of Pompeii, being buried under the vast amount of waste products produced by the disastrous volcanic eruption of AD 79, and does not figure in this book. The ROTAS stone gives details of the early Christian presence in Pompeii, though of course nobody actually survived the volcanic eruption. Even if not mentioned anywhere else in his book, Patzia does not go into detail about the stone when discussing whether or not there were first-century churches in the Italian peninsula outside of Rome. Although it is not surprising that Patzia would want to concentrate upon the early church’s beginnings in Rome given its later importance for the Christian religion.1 If description and discussion of what the Bible says about the early Church is what youre looking for, this is as good a book to choose as any other. If you want too find out about the emergence and also the development of the early church from non-biblical sources then buy, or burrow another book on the early church.2 The ambience is distinctly Fuller, and here and there this brings up

Critically examine the internationational expansion strategy for Essay

Critically examine the internationational expansion strategy for Starbucks.Discuss the motivations for the expansion and the app - Essay Example Through the expansion, the company has focused to create a strong network across the US, while expanding further to the new locations worldwide. This report would look into the strategic management of the company with a profound insight into its core competencies and international expansion strategies. The effectiveness of its leader has been discussed to show the contribution in the company’s success by implementing appropriate strategies. Strengths and Strategies which have emerged as the Core Competencies of the Company Starbucks has a number of strengths which has emerged as the core competencies of the company. Starbucks has a corporate culture which has encouraged the innovation and creativity within the organisation. The organisation does not have any formal organisation chart with a proper hierarchy structure. Starbucks has several departments, functional departments including marketing, finance, operations, supply chain and human resources. Apart from that, the compan y also has cross functional teams which encourages accumulated effort to achieve a common goal. The decision making process in this organisation is bottom up process where the employees are authorised to take the decisions without even referring back to the upper management. This has encouraged innovation and creativity at the employee level. The employees are treated as family members and as partners. The company relies on the employees to offer a differentiated experience to its customers. With this organisational structure, the company has excelled in introducing new products and ideas. The employees had stock options on the company shares. Moreover, employee training is another significant arena which can be seen as the core competence of the organisation. The marketing strategy is one of the significant strengths of the company. The organisation positions itself as a consumers’ place, which encourages the customers to visit the place again and again. The company customis es its stores depending on the specific locations, the stores are in. Another significant strength of Starbucks is that it positions itself as environment friendly. In the wake of environment awareness among the customers this positioning has helped the company to reach at its environment friendly customers. The company has a well known practice to make enough effort to comply with the environment. Starbucks try to be ethical in all its dealings. This has enables the company to gain from a good image among its customers. The large size of the company can also been seen as core competence of the company over its competitors. The sheer size of the company has allowed them to set the prices and has also helped the company to prevent the growth of other competing organisations. The world, specifically the people in the United States look at the Starbucks and its associates as the producer of high end coffees. Moreover, the consumers look at the company as the biggest and the best in the business, it is in. This can also been see

National culture Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

National culture - Case Study Example However what best they can do is to find out and research the strengths and weaknesses of this area and hence upon getting the much needed knowledge, base their theories and strategies in a much more effective and efficient manner. This will help one and all to better understand what the new territory, region or country offers the business and the people associated with it. The best thing is that the benefits and disadvantages are determined even before the organization goes the global way and thus it saves itself from embarrassment which it might face without having proper knowledge and adequate research within it. The significant thing here is to get prepared and be ready for what is to come in the future as concerns to the organization that we are talking about here. Cultures like in the U.S., where organizations are experiencing increased workforce diversity are also finding work effectiveness is influenced by relationships between superiors and subordinates who have different cu ltural heritages (Ettorre 1993; Muller & Haase 1994; Watson, Kumar & Michaelsen 1993). Different cultures have different models of management and ideas of the nature of organizations (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). The ways and means that are usually taken care of whilst managing a business are aplenty and it is only up to the top management within a company that the same can be handled in a several different methods. They are the ones to decide as to what is the real manner in which the firm's operations would be handled as well as who will head the respective departments, lead the business strategic units and act as legal and media representatives of the said business. The business, as marketers say, exists to satisfy its target audience through fulfilling a need courtesy its products and/or services or a combination of the both, the same being true in case of a retail outlet which sells gasoline to local consumers, thus giving in petrol plus extra services in the form of window cleaning, fuel gauge checks and so on and so forth. A company or an organization needs soun d management framework at its top so that the staff and the employees working at different levels feel at ease with the job as well as the working environment. This indeed is very important as it builds long-term credibility of the organization that it cares about its employees and not just the customers and in cases profits and revenues only. A formal organization takes into account the role of leadership at the top and the manner in which this leadership is basically carried about, both in the interests of the people within the company as well as the company itself so that the end result is one on which everyone solemnly agree, that is to make the company thrive from a revenue-generating angle and image building aspect in the long run. A business does not come into its own overnight. It takes a lot of research, planning and proper execution to take it where the marketers,

Mechanisms of Viral Transmission

Mechanisms of Viral Transmission Most of the new viral diseases that enter the human population are enzootic viruses that have changed their hosts. These enzootic viruses tend to have a severe effect in humans. A viral disease emerges in a population through a series of steps the initial infection, the spillover, and lastly the host to host transfer. These steps are further aided or prevented by the virulence factors present in the virus versus the host or human whichever the case susceptibility. It is important to determine the source of these viruses and whether it was via an enzootic or epizootic virus. The barriers that the virus faces when trying to infect a new host are just as important as the role that the environment plays in the viruss transmissibility. There are many factors to consider when looking at viruses how viruses change hosts. New viruses can emerge in a population through contact with an alternative host. Until recently the probability of a virus changing hosts was limited by the restricted contact between the initial host and the alternative host. An increase in contact can be accomplished by introducing the host animal to domestication or any other arena that would serve to increase the likelihood of human contact. Primates that have been infected with simian immunodeficiency virus in Africa were separated from areas of high human populations which in turn significantly limited the chances of the virus changing hosts and infecting humans. The chances of viral contact can also be increased by changes in social and sexual behavior, increased travel, hygiene practices and the increased density of the population that work in favor of the virus and increase the chances of infection in an alternative human host. The significance of initial host to alternative host contact can be examined through the instance in Africa where primates infected with simian immunodeficiency virus in Africa were removed from areas of high human populations and in turn significantly reduced the number of the host changes from primate to humans. The removal of the infected animal from direct human contact does not prevent transmission though intermediate hosts. In Malaysia fruit bats are the reservoirs for the virus nipah and with the large number fruit orchards near pig farms the incidence of contact between the virus and the pig is greatly increased. When it comes to a viruss ability to infect a new host there are new barriers that the virus must learn to penetrate. An important part of a viruss ability to infect new hosts is its ability to infect that hosts cells. In humans the viruss can have trouble entering the host via due to factors that fight off viral infections or something as simple as the surface of human skin can pose as a barrier for entry into an alternative host. When galactosyl producing virions which are not normally found in humans are detected in the body the galactosyl brings about an antibody response that inactivates the virus and prevents its spread. A mechanism of action such as this requires the viruss need to rapidly adapt to bypass the barriers that are set up to prevent viral infection. Even if the relative distance in relation between the initial host and the alternative host of a virus is close the intensity and rate of the contact between the two species is still a factor. When a virus infects a new host that is distantly or closely related to the previous host it does not mean that the host cannot also transfer the virus to more distantly related organism. Integration of a virus into a new host cell is also dependent on the receptor binding that occurs between the virus and host cell. The changes that the virus has to undergo in order to infect the new host cells must coincide with the receptors that are found already on the host cells. A process involving the transfer of the FPV virus to infect canine involved a gain of two mutations that then allowed for it to bind to the canine transferrin receptors. These mutations allowed for the FPV virus to increase its host range successfully gain the ability to infect canines with a new form of the FPV virus CPV. Blockades for the spread of the viral infection once it has infected the new host cells can exist in the form of proteins that prevent the spread of the virus to neighboring cells. The capsid proteins of viruses are stopped at the cytoplasm of the new host cell by TRIM5ÃŽ ± a protein that binds to the capsid of the virus preventing its entry into the host cell. Generalist and specialist viruses are two categories for viruses that can possibly predict and help determine the ranges of hosts that a particular virus can infect; and whether or not a virus is a candidate for host switching. Generalist viruses are expected to have an increased incidence of alternative host shifting while specialist viruses are the opposite and are unable to bypass the barriers in the host cells receptors and other defenses that would require the virus to mutant in order to effectively infect the cell. Most of the specialist cells have trouble making it past the initial infection of the alternative host. Viruses that have a wide range of hosts have a built in advantage already in that they do not have to alter in order to successfully make a change in the types of organism that they can infect. The rate of variation in a virus directly determines the adaptability of a virus into a new host. Viruses that have a high evolving rate are more likely to cross species and cause infection in a new host due to its ability to quickly adapt to the host cell. RNA viruses do not have proofreading mechanisms as well as replication that is error prone and are in that sense much more variable than DNA viruses. DNA viruses are less variable than RNA viruses but some exception exist in that certain single stranded DNA the rate of variation may be similar to that of RNA viruses. A reduction in virus fitness occurs when the virus undergoes mutations that are necessary in order to infect a new host. If the virus is using a intermediate host even more adaptations are required and the virus is further reduced in fitness. The addition of the intermediate hosts help to explain why the influenza A virus infects each of its hosts differently through different mechanisms. In humans for example the infection is found in the lower respiratory tract than in other hosts where it is located in the upper respiratory tract. Reassortments and recombinants aid in a virus adaptability to a new host cell by making a number of genetic changes in a shorter amount of time. The CoV virus of the bat in recombination with another virus was able to make a new virus SARS that can infect humans and other hosts. The intermediate virus is a form of the virus that infects the intermediate host. This virus is the least stable form of the virus. The lower fitted virus loses some of the capability to infect previous parental host types efficiently in addition to the newer crossover hosts they are trying to infect. This phenomenon could account for the low percentage of viral crossover between species. The article did a good job of following the trend and mechanism with which a virus switches hosts. More investigation should be done in the areas of the initial infection of the virus and how it crosses over. More studies should also be done on the likelihood of a virus from another animal making the host switch to infect humans and how that spread can be predicted and prevented. Further studies should be done on how the viruses that make the jump to a species that is not close in the evolutionary chain to who they normally infect to humans. A broader knowledge of how the virus adapts itself to survive in an organism that is so different from its original host also deserves further investigation. If the topics of interest listed are further studied and developed then the article would have a more focused and concise viewpoint instead of the disorganized and sometimes abandoned thread of thoughts that exist at some points within the article.

Portchester Castle Essays -- Papers

Portchester Castle Portchster Castle is a concentric castle, dating from Roman times situated at the top of Portsmouth harbour. It has a 9-acre site and was built from flint and stone. The castle had bastions and a tidal moat, at the centre of the castle would have been accommodation. Portchester Castle was originally built by the Romans to protect the South coast of England from invasion by the Saxons. Portchester was one of a series of forts built around the country and was typical of Roman forts. Portchester was used as a base for soldiers. Because of its location, troops could be sent out from the fort on ships to defeat Saxon raiders. The location of Portchester Castle was ideal for the Romans for several reasons: The site of the Castle was a peninsula which meant that it was protected on three sides and could only be attacked from one. The harbour that the fort protected could be used for anchoring Roman ships, as they would be safe from storms. What factors influenced the design and construction of Portchester Castle? During Roman times, Portchester Castle was an important link with the Roman Empire as it was situated on the coast. When the Normans arrived Portchester Castles was considered to be important as it provided a link to Normandy. The Normans did not have the sophisticated technology, the resources or the amount of men that the Romans had had. This meant that they were unable to maintain the Castle as the Romans had. They made a number of changes to the Roman Fort: A keep was built in the corner with a wooden fence around it. Some of the Roman walls had been 10ft thick, the Normans thinned these down to 5... ... attacker's entrance to the castle. Although Portchester Castle does not have staggered entrances it does have a triple gate to make it harder for attackers to enter. This was very important because the gate is the weakest part of a castle. On parts of the walls of Portchester Castle, the base fans out and slopes down. This is to make it harder for the enemy to destroy the foundations and also to keep an attacker away from the wall so they can be fired at more easily. This is a feature of a typical concentric castle although this defence technique is usually used on the entire wall. A typical feature of a concentric castle is the protective wood work at the top of the walls. We cannot tell whether this was a feature of Portchester Castle because any evidence would have rotted away.

Personal Affiliations and Networking Essay

I arrive at my place of work at 7. 00am. As soon as I arrive I have a shift change over meeting with the night staff. At this meeting I would be told if there were any problems in the night with any of the service users. Next I collect the keys to my house where I will be working. I work in house 2 where I support two service users. Once I enter the house I wake up the service users by knocking on their doors and calling their name. Once they are up I support them with personal care, this involves showering them, washing their hair and if a male service user, I assist in giving them a shave. I also prompt them to clean their teeth. I always wear gloves with any personal care for infection control and always change them for each service user. I then prepare breakfast, I give the servicers a choice, but usually this would be cereal with coffee. On an afternoon shift dinner is from then menu which the service users both plan with my support. When doing this I always wear protective gloves for hygiene reasons. My next job would then be to administer medication. I also have to wear gloves for this as well for hygiene reasons. I also have to use a medicine pot to put the meds in to pass to the service user. Once I have witnessed the medicines being taken I then sign to say they have been given. Service users normally go to their day centres between 8. 30 and 9. 00am. Once they have gone I do their washing and housework. I also use this time to make appointments if needed. These would include doctors, dentist or even hair appointments. Another role in job is to do finances for the services users. Every shift I will count their money which is locked in a cupboard I collect keys for this from the shift leader. Count the monies to see that there are no discrepancies. I would also take money for food which is done on a weekly basis. This is called cash and balance. I sign on the relevant finance sheet to record that I have done this. At the end of each shift I fill in a record called a daily sheet I record on this what I have done with the service user. These records as well as the finance sheets are confidential as must be always treated as such. This means not discussing with any irrevent people my service users finance situation and any private issues they may have. This is very important. When working with any new service users I would always firstly read their care plans. This allows me to understand the service user’s needs and the way personal care and feeding should be undertaken. It is very important I read this as every service user is different and have different needs. These plans also tell me if the service user has any communication issues i. e. ; unable to speak use sign language etc. When taking a service user out I would always read the risk assessment. This will indicate to me any problems or things needed to do before taking someone out. This could include things like service user not being able to climb stairs use escalators or having a fear of lifts. It also tells me if a service user could get violent or distressed in crowds also if any special equipment is needed this could include wheelchairs or walking aids. If a risk assessment is not available for what I want, for example taking someone to the pictures I would create a new one and get it signed off by a team leader or manager. This is a true account of my duties in my job role as a residential support worker.

Global Capitalism and American Empire Essays

Global Capitalism and American Empire Essays Global Capitalism and American Empire Essay Global Capitalism and American Empire Essay the term imperialism was finally back on every leftist’s – and even a good many liberals’ lips. The popularity of Hardt and Negri’s tome, Empire, had caught the new conjuncture, even before the second war on Iraq. But their insistence (reflecting the widespread notion that the power of all nation states had withered in the era of globalization) that ‘the United States does not, and indeed no nation state can today, form the center of an imperialist project’ was itself bizarrely out of sync with the times. 4 The left needs a new theorization of imperialism, one that will transcend the limitations of the old Marxist ‘stagist’ theory of inter-imperial rivalry, and allow for a full appreciation of the historical factors that led to the formation of a unique American informal empire. This will involve understanding how the American state developed the capacities to eventually incorporate its capitalist rivals, and oversee and police ‘globalization’- i. e. the spread of capitalist social relations to every corner of the world. Central to this must be the question of what made plausible the American state’s insistence that it was not imperialistic, and how this was put into practice and institutionalized; and, conversely, what today makes implausible the American state’s insistence that it is not imperialistic, and what effects its lack of concealment might mean in terms of its attractiveness and its capacity to manage global capitalism and sustain its global empire. II 5 There is a structural logic to capitalism that tends to its expansion and internationalization. This was famously captured in Marx’s description in the Communist Manifesto of a future that stunningly matches our present: ‘The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere. . . it creates a world after its own image. ’ But affirming Marx’s prescience in this respect runs the risk of treating what is now called globalization as inevitable and irreversible. It must be remembered that Marx’s words also seemed to apply at the end of the 19th century, when, as Karl Polanyi noted, ‘[o]nly a madman would have doubted that the international economic system was the axis of the material existence of the human race’. 15 Yet, as Polanyi was concerned to explain, far from continuing uninterrupted, there were already indications that the international economic system of the time was in the early stages of dissolution, and would soon collapse via two horrific world wars and the implosion of the Great Depression. The postwar reconstruction of the capitalist world order was a direct response on the part of the leading capitalist states to that earlier failure of globalization. Through the Bretton Woods infrastructure for a new liberal trading order, the dynamic logic of capitalist globalization was once again unleashed. During the brief post-war ‘golden age’ – through the acceleration of trade, the new degree of direct foreign investment, and the growing internationalization of finance – capitalist globalization was revived. And it was further invigorated through the neoliberal response to the economic crisis of the 1970s. The outcome of this crisis showed that the international effects of structural crises in accumulation are not predictable a priori. Of the three great structural crises of 6 capitalism, the first (post-1870s) accelerated inter-imperialist rivalry and led to World War One and Communist revolution, while the second crisis (the Great Depression) actually reversed capitalism’s internationalizing trajectory. Yet the crisis of the early 1970s was followed by a deepening, acceleration and extension of capitalist globalization. Nor did this, while promoting inter-regional economic competition, produce anything like the old inter-imperial rivalry. What this erratic trajectory from the 19th to the 21st century suggests is that the process of globalization is neither inevitable (as was conventionally assumed in the latter nineteenth century and as is generally assumed again today) nor impossible to sustain (as Lenin and Polanyi, in their different ways, both contended). The point is that we need to distinguish between the expansive tendency of capitalism and its actual history. A global capitalist order is always a contingent social construct: the actual development and continuity of such an order must be problematized. There is a tendency within Marxism, as in much bourgeois analysis, to write theory in the present tense. We must not theorize history in such a way that the trajectory of capitalism is seen as a simple derivative of abstract economic laws. Rather, as Philip McMichael has argued, we need to ‘historicize theory and problematize globalization as a relation immanent in capitalism, but with quite distinct material (social, political and environmental) relations across time and timespace†¦ Globalization is not simply the unfolding of capitalist tendencies but a historically distinct project shaped, or complicated, by the contradictory relations of previous episodes of globalization. 16 Above all, the realization or frustration of capitalism’s globalizing tendencies cannot be understood apart from the role play by the states that have historically 7 constituted the capitalist world. The rise of capitalism is inconceivable without the role that European states played in establishing the legal and infrastructural frameworks for property, contract, currency, competition and wage-labour within their own borders, while also generating the process of uneven development and the attendant construction of race in t he modern world. This had gone so far by the mid to late 19th century that when capital expanded beyond the borders of a given European nation-state, it was by then hosted in the capitalist orders that had been – or were then just becoming established by other states, or it expanded within a framework of formal or informal empire. Yet this was not enough to sustain capital’s tendency to global expansion. No adequate means of overall global capitalist regulation existed, leaving the international economy and its patterns of accumulation fragmented, and thus fueling the inter-imperial rivalry that led to World War One. The classical theories of imperialism developed at the time, from Hobson to Lenin, were founded on a theorization of capitalist economic stages and crises. This was a fundamental mistake that has, ever since, continued to plague proper understanding. 17 The classical theories were defective in their historical reading of imperialism, in their treatment of the dynamics of capital accumulation, and in their elevation of a conjunctural moment of inter-imperial rivalry to an immutable law of capitalist globalization. A distinctive capitalist imperialism did not suddenly arrive with the socalled monopoly or finance-capital stage of capitalism in the 19th late century, as we argue below. Moreover, the theory of crisis derived from the classical understanding of this period was mistakenly used to explain capitalism’s expansionist tendencies. If capitalists looked to the export of capital as well as trade in foreign markets, it was not so 8 much because centralization and concentration of capital had ushered in a new stage marked by the falling rate of profit, overaccumulation and/or underconsumption. Rather, akin to the process that had earlier led individual units of capital to move out of their original location in a given village or town, it was the accelerated competitive pressures and opportunities, and the attendant strategies and emerging capacities of a developing capitalism, that pushed and facilitated the international expansionism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The classical theorists of imperialism also failed to adequately apprehend the spatial dimensions of this internationalization. They made too much of the export of oods and capital to what we now call the ‘third world’ the latter’s very underdevelopment limited its capacity to absorb such flows. And they failed to discern two key developments in the leading capitalist countries themselves. Rather than an exhaustion of consumption possibilities within the leading capitalist countries – a premise based on what Lenin’s pamphlet Imperialism called ‘the semi-starva tion level of existence of the masses’ capitalism was then characterized by emergent working class formations able to achieve increasing levels of private and public consumption. 8 And rather than the concentration of capital in these countries limiting the introduction of new products so that ‘capital cannot find a field for profitable investment’,19 the very unevenness of on-going competition and technological development was introducing new prospects for internal accumulation – there was a deepening of capital at home, not only its spreading abroad. Far from being the highest stage of capitalism, what these theorists were observing was (as is now obvious) a relatively early phase of capitalism. This was so not 9 just in terms of consumption patterns, financial flows and competition, but in terms of the limited degree of foreign direct investment at the time, and the very rudimentary means that had been developed for managing the contradictions associated with capitalism’s internationalization to this point. Unfortunately, many Marxists continued to use the same kind of theory to understand every manifestion of imperialism over the subsequent century. It was, however, in their reductionist and instrumental treatment of the state that these theorists were especially defective. 20 Imperialism is not reducible to an economic explanation even if economic forces are always a large part of it. We need, in this respect, to keep imperialism and capitalism as two distinct concepts. Competition amongst capitalists in the international arena, unequal exchange and uneven development are all aspects of capitalism itself, and their relationship to imperialism can only be apprehended through the theorization of the state. When states pave the way for their capital’s expansion abroad, or even when they follow and manage that expansion, this can only be understood in terms of these states’ relatively autonomous role in maintaining social order and securing the conditions of capital accumulation; and we must therefore factor state administrative capacities as well as class, cultural and military determinations into the explanation of the imperial aspect of this role. Capitalist imperialism needs to be understood through an extension of the theory of the capitalist state, rather than derived directly from the theory of economic stages or crises. And such a theory needs to be open to the possibility not only of inter-imperial rivalry, and not only the conjunctural predominance of one imperial state, but also the structural penetration by one imperial state of former rivals. This precisely means we 10 eed to historicize the theory, beginning by breaking with the conventional notion that the nature of modern imperialism was once and for all determined by the kinds of economic rivalries attending the stage of industrial concentration and financialization associated with turn-of-the-century ‘monopoly capital’. In fact, the transition to the modern form of imperialism may be located in the British state’s articulation of its old mercantile formal empire with the informal empire it spawned in the mid-19th century during the era of â⠂¬Ëœfree trade’. Schumpeter’s theory of imperialism as reflecting the atavistic role within capitalism of pre-capitalist exploiting and warrior classes, and both Kautsky’s and Lenin’s conception that mid-19th century British industrial capital and its policy of free trade reflected a ‘pure’ capitalism antithetical or at least ‘indifferent’ to imperial expansion,21 all derived from too crude an understanding of the separation of the economic from the political under capitalism. This lay at the root of the notion that the replacement of the era of free competition by the era of finance capital had ended that separation, leading to imperialist expansion, rivalry and war among the leading capitalist states. Like contemporary discussions of globalization in the context of neoliberal ‘free market’ policies, the classical Marxist accounts of the 19th century era of free trade and its succession by the era of inter-imperial rivalry also confusingly counterposed ‘states’ and ‘markets’. In both cases there is a failure to appreciate the crucial role of the state in making ‘free markets’ happen and work. Just as the emergence of so-called ‘laissez faire’ under mid-19th century industrial capitalism entailed a highly active state to effect the formal separation of the polity and economy, and to define and police the domestic social relations of a fully capitalist order, so did the external policy of free trade entail an 11 xtension of the imperial role along all of these dimensions of the first state that ‘created a form of imperialism driven by the logic of capitalism’. 22 As Gallagher and Robinson showed 50 years ago, in a seminal essay entitled ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, the conventional notion (shared by Kautsky, Lenin and Schumpeter) that British free trade and imperialism did not mix was belied by occupations and annexations, the addition of new colonies, and especially the importance of India to the Empi re, between the 1840s and the 1870s. It was belied even more by the immense extension, for both economic and strategic reasons, of Britain’s ‘informal empire’ via foreign investment, bilateral trade, ‘friendship’ treaties and gunboat diplomacy, so that ‘mercantilist techniques of formal empire were being employed in the mid-Victorian age at the same time as informal techniques of free trade were being used in Latin America. It is for this reason that attempts to make phases of imperialism correspond directly to phases in the economic growth of the metropolitan economy are likely to prove in vain†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢23 Gallagher and Robinson defined imperialism in terms of a variable political function ‘of integrating new regions into the expanding economy; its character is largely decided by the various and changing relationships between the political and economic elements of expansion in any particular region and time. ’ †¦In other words, it is the politics as well as the economics of the informal empire which we have to include in the account The type of political lien between the expanding economy and its formal and informal dependencies†¦ has tended to vary with the economic value of the territory, the strength of its political structure, the readiness of its rulers to collaborate with British commercial and strategic purposes, the ability of the native society to undergo economic change without external control, the extent to which domestic and foreign political situations permitted British intervention, and, finally, how far European rivals allowed British policy a free hand. 24 12 This is not to say there are not important differences between informal and formal empire. Informal empire requires the economic and cultural penetration of other states to be sustained by political and military coordination with other independent governments. The main factor that determined the shift to the extension of formal empires after the 1880s was not the inadequacy of Britain’s relationship with its own informal empire, nor the emergence of the stage of monopoly or ‘finance capital’, but rather Britain’s inability to incorporate the newly emerging capitalist powers of Germany, the US and Japan into ‘free trade imperialism’. Various factors determined this, including pre-capitalist social forces that did indeed remain important in some of these countries, nationalist sentiments that accompanied the development of capitalist nation-states, strategic responses to domestic class struggle as well geo-political and military rivalries, and especially the limited capacities of the British state reflecting also the growing separation between British financial and industrial capital to prevent these states trying to overturn the consequences of uneven development. What ensued was the rush for colonies and the increasing organization of trade competition via modes of tariff-regulation (serving as the main tax base of these states as well as protective devices for nascent industrial bourgeoisies and working classes). In this context, the international institutional apparatuses of diplomacy and alliances, British naval supremacy and the Gold Standard were too fragile to even guarantee equal treatment of foreign capital with national capital within each state (the key prerequisite of capitalist globalization), let alone to mediate the conflicts and manage the contradictions associated with the development of global capitalism by the late 19th century. 3 No less than Lenin, by 1914 Kautsky had accepted, following Hilferding’s Finance Capital, that ‘a brutal and violent’ form of imperialist competition was ‘a product of highly developed industrial capitalism. ’25 Kautsky was right to perceive, however, that even if inter-imperial rivalry had led to war between the major capitalist powers, this was not an inevitable characteristic of capitalist globalization. What so incensed Lenin, with his proclivity for over-politicizing theory, was that Kautsky thought that all the major capitalist ruling classes, after ‘having learned the lesson of the world war’, might eventually come to revive capitalist globalization through a collaborative ‘ultra-imperialism’ in face of the increasing strength of an industrial proletariat that nevertheless still fell short of the capacity to effect a socialist transformation. But Kautksy himself made his case for the possibility of ‘the translation of cartellization into foreign policy’ reductively, that is, by conceiving his notion of ultraimperialism ‘from a purely economic standpoint’ as he repeatedly put it, rather than in terms of any serious theory of the state. Moreover, had Kautsky put greater stress on his earlier perception (in 1911) that ‘the United States is the country that shows us our social future in capitalism’, and discerned the capacity of the newly emerging informal American empire for eventually penetrating and coordinating the other leading capitalist powers, rather than anticipating an equal alliance amongst them, he might have been closer to the mark in terms of what finally actually happened after 1945. But what could hardly yet be clearly foreseen were the developments, both inside the American social formation and state as well as internationally, that allowed a biographer of Dean Acheson to later write ‘only the US had the power to grab hold of history and make it conform. ’26 14 III The central place the United States now occupies within global capitalism rests on a particular convergence of structure and history. In the abstract, we can identify specific institutions as reflecting the structural power of capitalism. But what blocks such institutions from emerging and what, if anything, opens the door to their development, is a matter of historical conjunctures. The crucial phase in the reconstruction of global capitalism after the earlier breakdowns and before the econstitution of the last quarter of the twentieth century – occurred during and after World War Two. It was only after (and as a state-learned response to) the disasters of Depression and the Second World War that capitalist globalization obtained a new life. This depended, however, on the emergence and uneven historical evolution of a set of structures developed under the leadership of a unique agent: the American imperial state. The role the United States came to play in world capitalism was not inevitable but nor was it merely accidental: it was not a matter of teleology but of capitalist history. The capacity it developed to ‘conjugate’ its ‘particular power with the general task of coordination’ in a manner that reflected ‘the particular matrix of its own social history’, as Perry Anderson has recently put it, was founded on ‘the attractive power of US models of production and culture†¦ increasingly unified in the sphere of consumption. Coming together here were, on the one hand, the invention in the US of the modern corporate form, ‘scientific management’ of the labour process, and assembly-line mass production; and, on the other, Hollywood-style ‘narrative and visual schemas stripped to their most abstract’, appealing to and aggregating waves of immigrants through the ‘dramatic simplification and repetition’. 27 The dynamism of American capitalism and its worldwide 15 appeal combined with the universalistic language of American liberal democratic ideology to underpin a capacity for informal empire far beyond that of the 19th century British one. Moreover, by spawning the modern multinational corporation, with foreign direct investment in production and services going beyond portfolio investment in relation to railways and mining, the American informal empire was to prove much more penetrative of other social formations Yet it was not only the economic and cultural formation of American capitalism, but also the formation of the American state that facilitated a new informal empire. Against Anderson’s impression that the American state’s constitutional structures lack the ‘carrying power’ of its economic and cultural ones (by virtue of being ‘moored to eighteenth century arrangements’)28 stands Thomas Jefferson’s observation in 1809 that ‘no constitution was ever before as well-calculated for extensive empire and selfgovernment. 29 Hardt and Negri were right to trace the pre-figuration of what they call ‘Empire’ today back to the American’s constitution’s incorporation of Madisonian ‘network power’. 30 This entailed not only checks and balances within the state apparatus, but the notion that the greater plurality of interests incorporated within an extensive and expansive state would guarantee that the masses would have no common motive or capacity to come together to check the ruling class. 1 Yet far from anticipating the sort of decentred and amorphous power that Hardt and Negri imagine characterizes the US historically (and ‘Empire’ today), the constitutional framework of the new American state gave great powers to the central government to expand trade and make war. As early as 1783, what George Washington already spoke of ambitiously as ‘a rising empire’32 was captured in the Federalist Paper XI image of ‘one great American system superior to the 16 control of all transatlantic force or influence and able to dictate the terms of connection between the old and the new world! 33 The notion of empire employed here was conceived, of course, in relation to the other mercantile empires of the 18th century. But the state which emerged out of the ambitions of the ‘expansionist colonial elite’,34 with Northern merchants (supported by artisans and commercial farmers) and the Southern plantation-owners allying against Britain’s formal mercantile empire, evinced from its beginnings a trajectory leading t o capitalist development and informal empire. The initial form this took was through territorial expansion westward, largely through extermination of the native population, and blatant exploitation not only of the black slave population but also debt-ridden subsistence farmers and, from at least the 1820s on, an emerging industrial working class. But the fact that the new American state could conceive itself as embodying republican liberty, and be widely admired for it, was largely bound up with the link between ‘extensive empire and self-government’ embedded in the federal constitution. The American empire would not be mercantilist but in still another respect something new under the sun: the West was not to be colonies but states. ’35 Among the political units of the federation, ‘state rights’ were no mirage: they reflected the two different types of social relations slave and free that composed each successive wave of new states and by 1830 limited the activist economic role of the federal s tate. After the domestic inter-state struggles that eventually led to civil war, the defeat of the plantocracy and the dissolution of slavery, the federal constitution provided the framework for the unfettered domination of an industrial capitalism with the largest domestic market in the world, obviating any temptation towards formal imperialism via 17 territorial conquest abroad. 36 The outcome of the Civil War allowed for a reconstruction of the relationship between financial and industrial capital and the federal state, inclining state administrative capacities and policies away from mercantilism and towards extended capitalist reproduction. 7 Herein lies the significance that Anderson himself attaches to the evolving juridical form of the American state, whereby ‘unencumbered property rights, untrammeled litigation, the invention of the corporation’ led to ‘what Polanyi most feared, a juridical system disembedding the market as far as possible from ties of custom, tr adition or solidarity, whose very abstraction from them later proved American firms like American films – exportable and reproducible across the world, in a way that no other competitor could quite match. The steady transformation of international merchant law and arbitration in conformity with US standards is witness to the process. ’38 The expansionist tendencies of American capitalism in the latter half of the 19th century (reflecting pressures from domestic commercial farmers as much as from the industrialists and financiers of the post-civil war era) were even more inclined to take informal forms than had British capitalism, even though they were not based on a policy of free trade. The modalities were initially similar, and they began long before the Spanish-American War of 1898, which is usually dated as the start of external US imperial expansion. This was amply documented in a paper boldly called ‘An Indicator of Informal Empire’ prepared for the Center of Naval Analysis: between 1869 and 1897 the US Navy made no less than 5,980 ports of all to protect American commercial shipping in Argentina, Brazil Chile, Nicaragua, Panama, Columbia and elsewhere in Latin America. 39 Yet the establishment of colonies in Puerto Rico and the Philippines and the annexation of Hawaii ‘was a deviation †¦ from the typical economic, political and ideological forms of domination already characteristic of American imperialism. 40 Rather, it was through American foreign direct investment and the modern corporate 18 form epitomized by the Singer Company establishing itself as the first multinational corporation by jumping the Canadian tariff barrier to estab lish a subsidiary to produce sewing machines for prosperous Ontario wheat farmers that the American informal empire soon took shape in a manner quite distinct from the British one. 1 The articulation of the new informal American empire with military intervention was expressed by Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 in terms of the exercise of ‘international police power’, in the absence of other means of international control, to the end of establishing regimes that know ‘how to act with reasonable efficiency and decency in social and political matters’ and to ensure that each such regime ‘keeps order and pays its obligations’: â€Å"[A] nation desirous both of securing respect for itself and of doing good to others [Teddy Roosevelt declared, in language that has now been made very familiar again] must have a force adequate for the work which it feels is allotted to it as its part of the general world duty†¦ A great free people owes to itself and to all mankind not to sink into helplessness before the powers of evil. ’42 The American state’s genius for presenting its informal empire in terms of the framework of universal rights reached its apogee under Woodrow Wilson. It also reached, with his Presidency, the apogee of hypocricy, especially at the Paris Peace Conference, where Keynes concluded Wilson was ‘the greatest fraud on earth’. 3 Indeed, it was not only the US Congress’s isolationist tendencies, but the incapacity of the American presidential, as well as treasury and military apparatus, that determined the failure of the United States to take responsibility for leading European reconstruction after World War One. The administrative and regulatory expansion of the American state under the impact of corporate liberalism in the progressive era,44 and the spread of 19 American direct investment through the 1920s (highlighted by General Motor’s purchase of Opel immediately before th e Great Depression, completing the ‘virtual division’ of the German auto industry between GM and Ford45) were significant developments. Yet it was only during the New Deal, amidst a collapse of global capitalism to which the American policies had no little contributed, and in response to the remarkable domestic working class mobilizations, that the US state really began to develop the modern planning capacities that would, once they were redeployed in World War II, transform and vastly extend America’s informal imperialism. 46 Amidst the ongoing depression-era class struggles these capacities were limited by ‘political fragmentation, expressed especially in executive-congressional conflict, combined with deepening tensions between business and government ’47 America’s entry into World War Two, however, which ‘upended and re-oriented both national politics and business-government relations’ not only resolved ‘the statebuilding impasse of the late 1930s’ but also provided ‘the essential underpinnings for postwar U. S. governance. As Brian Waddell goes on to sum marize his outstanding study of the transition from the state-building of the Depression to that of World War II: The requirements of total war†¦ revived corporate political leverage, allowing corporate executives inside and outside the state extensive influence over wartime mobilization policies†¦ Assertive corporate executives and military officials formed a very effective wartime alliance that not only blocked any augmentation of the New Dealer authority but also organized a powerful alternative to the New Deal. International activism displaced and supplanted New Deal domestic activism. Thus was the stage finally set for a vastly extended and much more powerful informal US empire outside its own hemisphere. 20 IV The shift of ‘U. S. tate capacities towards realizing internationally-interventionist goals versus domestically-interventionist ones’48 (with much of the heavy lifting being done in the new conjuncture, at least inside the US Treasury, by key New D ealers themselves) was crucial to the revival of capitalism’s globalizing tendencies after World War Two. This not only took place through the wartime reconstruction of the American state, but also (and much more radically) the postwar reconstruction of all the states at the core of the old inter-imperial rivalry. And it also took place alongside and indeed leading to the multiplication of new states out of their old colonial empires. Among the various dimensions of this new relationship between capitalism and imperialism, the most important was that the densest imperial networks and institutional linkages, which had earlier run north-south between imperial states and their formal or informal colonies, now came to run between the US and the other major capitalist states. What Britain’s informal empire had been unable to manage (indeed hardly to even contemplate) in the 19th century now was accomplished by the American informal empire, which succeeded in integrating all the other capitalist powers into an effective system of coordination under its aegis. Even apart from the U. S. military occupations, the devastation of the European and Japanese economies and the weak political legitimacy of their ruling classes at the war’s end created a historically unprecedented opportunity which the American state was now ready and willing to exploit. In these conditions, moreover, the expansion of the informal American empire after World War Two was hardly a one-way (let alone solely coercive) imposition – it was often more properly characterized by the phrase ‘imperialism by invitation’. 49 21 However important was the development of the national security state apparatus and the geostrategic planning that framed the division of the world with the USSR at Yalta and led to the long Cold War,50 no less important was the close attention the Treasury and State Department paid during the war to plans for relaunching a coordinated liberal trading regime and a rule-based financial order. This was accomplished by manipulating its main allies’ debtor status, the complete domination of the dollar as world currency and the fact that the 50% of world production was now accounted for by the U. S. economy. The American state had studied and learned well from the lesson of its post-World War One incapacity to combine liberal internationalist rhetoric with an institutional commitment to manage an international capitalist order. Through the very intricate joint planning by the British and American Treasuries during the war51 i. e. through the process that led to Bretton Woods the Americans ensured that the British were not only ‘accepting some obligation to modify their domestic policy in light of its international effects on stability’, but also the liquidation of the British Empire by ‘throwing Britain into the arms of America as a supplicant, and therefore subordinate; a subordination masked by the illusion of a â€Å"special relationship† which continues to this day’. 2 But it was by no means only the dollars at its disposal that were decisive here, nor was Britain the only object of America’s new informal empire. The thinking behind this was not always hidden in secret memorandums. A pamphlet inserted in Fortune magazine in May 1942 on ‘The U. S. in a New World: Relations with Britain’ set out a program for the ‘integration of the American and British economic systems as the foundation for a wider postwar integration’: 22 †¦ if a world order is to arise out of this war, it is realistic to believe that it will not spring full-blown from a conference of fifty states held at given date to draw up a World Constitution. It is more likely to be the gradual outgrowth of the wartime procedures now being developed†¦ If the U. S. ejects a lone-wolf imperialism and faces the fact that a League of Nations or some other universal parliament cannot be set up in the near future†¦[this] does not prevent America from approaching Britain with a proposal for economic integration as a first step towards general a reconstruction procedure. Unless we can reach a meeting of minds with Britain and the D ominions on these questions it is utopian to expect wider agreement among all the United Nations. 53 This pamphlet was accompanied by a lengthy collective statement54 by the editors of Fortune and Time and Life magazines which began with the premise that ‘America will emerge as the strongest single power in the postwar world, and†¦it is therefore up to it to decide what kind of postwar world it wants. They called, in this context, for ‘mutual trust between the businessman and his government’ after the tensions of the New Deal so that government could exercise its responsibilities both ‘to use its fiscal policy as a balance wheel, and to use its legislative and administrative power to promote and foster private enterprise, by removing barriers to its natural expansion†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ This would produce ‘an expansionist context in which tariffs, subsidies, monopolies, restrictive labor rules, plantation feudalism, poll taxes, technological backwardne ss, obsolete tax laws, and all other barriers to further expansion can be removed. ’ While recognizing that ‘the uprising of [the] international proletariat he most significant fact of the last twenty years†¦ means that complete international free trade, as Cobden used to preach it and Britain used to practice it, is no longer a an immediate political possibility’, nevertheless free trade between the US and the Britain would be ‘a jolt both economies need’ and on this basis ‘the area of freedom would spread – gradually through the British Dominions, through Latin America, perhaps someday through the world. For universal free trade, not bristling 23 nationalism, is the ultimate goal of a rational world. ’ And in terms that were uncharacteristically direct, the editors called this a new imperialism: Thus, a new American â€Å"imperialism,† if it is to be called that, will or rather can – be quite different from t he British type. It can also be different from the premature American type that followed our expansion in the Spanish war. American imperialism can afford to complete the work the British started; instead of salesmen and planters, its representatives can be brains and bulldozers, technicians and machine tools. American imperialism does not need extraterritoriality; it can get along better in Asia if the tuans and sahibs stay home†¦ Nor is the U. S. afraid to help build up industrial rivals to its own power†¦ because we know industrialization stimulates rather than limits international trade This American imperialism sounds very abstemious and high-minded. It is nevertheless a feasible policy for America, because friendship, not food, is what we need most from the rest of the world. The Bretton Woods conference towards the end of war confirmed as nothing else had yet done the immense managerial capacity the American state had developed to make this perspective a reality. The Commission responsible for establishing the IMF was chaired and tightly controlled by the ‘New Dealer’ Harry Dexter White for the American Treasury, and even though Keynes chaired the Commission responsible for planning what eventually became the World Bank, and though the various committees under him were also chaired by non-Americans, ‘they had American rapporteurs and secretaries, appointed and briefed by White’ who arranged for ‘a conference journal to be produced every day to keep everyone informed of the main decisions. At his disposal were ‘the mass of stenographers working day and night [and] the boy scouts acting as pages and distributors of papers’ – all written in a ‘legal language which made everything difficult to understand [amidst] the great variety of unintelligible tongues’. This was the ‘controlled Bedlam’ the American Treasury wanted in order to ‘make easier the imposition of a fait accompli. ’ It was in this context that every delegation finally decided 24 ‘it was better to run with the US Treasury than its disgruntled critics, â€Å"who [Keynes put it] do not know their own mind and have no power whatever to implement their promises. †Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ The conference ended with Keynes’s tribute to a process in which 44 countries ‘had been learning to work together so that â€Å"the brotherhood of man will become more than a phrase. † The delegates applauded wildly. â€Å"The Star Spangled Banner† was played’. 55 With the IMF and World Bank headquarters established at American insistence in Washington, D. C. a pattern was set for international economic management among all the leading capitalist countries that continues to this day, one in which even when it is European or Japanese financ e ministries and central banks which propose, it is the US Treasury and Federal Reserve that dispose. 56 The dense institutional linkages binding these states to the American empire were also institutionalized, of course, through the institutions of NATO, not to mention the hub-and-spokes networks binding each of the other leading capitalist states to the intelligence and security apparatuses of the US as part of the strategy of containment of Communism during the Cold War. These interacted with the economic networks, as well with new propaganda, intellectual and media networks, to explain, justify and promote the new imperial reality. Most of those who stress the American state’s military and intelligence linkages with the coercive apparatuses of Europe and Japan tend to root this in the dynamics of the Cold War57. There is of course no question that the Cold War and the later collapse of the Soviet Union were of historic significance, but this emphasis on the geopolitical context alone, does not capture the making of the new world order. The Cold War reinforced rather than shaped the newly emerging world, while the collapse of the Soviet Union – 25 hose significance we will return to in our conclusion did not end the basis of American dominance within Europe. What the concentration on the external military-intelligence-coercive apparatuses obscures is how far the American ‘Protectorate System’ (as Peter Gowan names it), was part of actually ‘alter[ing] the character of the capitalist core. ’ For it entailed the ‘internal transformation of social relations within the protectorates in the direction of the American â€Å"fordist† system of accumulation [that] opened up the possibility of a vast extension of their internal markets, with the working class not only as source of expanded surplus value but also an increasingly important consumption centre for realizing surplus value. 58 While the new informal empire still provided room for the other core states to act as ‘autonomous organizing centres of capital accumulation’, the emulation of US technological and managerial ‘fordist’ forms (initially organized and channeled through the post-war joint ‘productivity councils’) was massively reinforced by the penetration of these states by American foreign direct investment. Here too, the core of the American imperial network shifted towards to th e advanced capitalist countries, so that between 1950 and 1970 Latin America’s share of total American FDI fell from 40 to under 20 percent, while Western Europe’s more than doubled to match the Canadian share of over 30 percent. 9 It was hardly surprising that acute outside observers from Raymond Aron to Nicos Poulantzas saw in Europe a tendential ‘Canadianization’ as the model form of integration into that empire. 60 None of this meant, of course, that the north-south dimension of imperialism became unimportant. But it did mean that the other core capitalist countries’ relationships with the third world, including their ex-colonies, were imbricated with American 26 informal imperial rule. The core capitalist countries might continue to benefit from the north-south divide, but any interventions (as Suez proved) had to be either Americaninitiated or at least have American approval. Only the American state could arrogate to itself the right to intervene against the sovereignty of other states (which it repeatedly did around the world) and only the American state reserved for itself the ‘sovereign’ right to reject international rules and norms when necessary; it is in this sense that only the American state was actively ‘imperialist’. Though informal imperial rule seemed to place the ‘third world’ and the core capitalist countries on the same political and economic footing, both the legacy of the old imperialism and the vast imbalance in resources between the Marshall Plan and third world development aid reproduced global inequalities. The space was afforded the European states to develop internal economic coherence and growing domestic markets in the post-war era (with the European economic integration also explicitly encouraged by the US precisely as a mechanism for the ‘European rescue of the nation-state’, in Alan Milward’s apt formulation). 61 But this contrasted with American impatience even with import-substitution industrialization strategies by states in the south, let alone their hostility to comprehensive and planned approaches to developing the kind of auto-centric economic base the advanced capitalist states had themselves guaranteed for themselves before embracing a liberal international economic order. This, more than any geostrategic concerns of the kind that predominated in the American wars in Korea and Vietnam, determined the US state’s involvement in the overthrow of secular nationalist and socialist governments from Iran to Chile. ). The predictable result given limi ts on the development of internal markets and the implications of all the third world states 27 competing to break into international markets was that global inequalities increased, although a few third world states, such as South Korea, were able to use the space that the new empire afforded them for geostrategic reasons, to develop rapidly and narrow the gap. Still, in general terms, the new informal form of imperial rule, not only in the advanced capitalist world but also in those regions of the third world where it held sway, was characterized by the penetration of borders, not their dissolution. It was not through the territorial expansion of formal empire, but rather through the reconstitution of states as integral elements of an informal American empire, that the global capitalist order was now organized and regulated. Nation states remained the primary vehicles through which (a) the social relations and institutions of class, property, currency, contract and markets were established and reproduced; and (b) the international accumulation of capital was carried out. The vast expansion of direct foreign investment worldwide, whatever the shifting regional shares of the total, meant that far from capital escaping the state, it expanded its dependence on many states. At the same time, capital as an effective social force within any given state now tended to include both foreign capital and domestic capital with international linkages and ambitions. Their interpenetration made the notion of distinct national bourgeoisies let alone rivalries between them in any sense analogous to those that led to World War I increasingly anachronistic. A further dimension of the new relationship between capitalism and empire was the internationalization of the state, understood in terms of any given state’s degree of internalization of the responsibility to manage its domestic capitalist order in way that contributes to managing the global capitalist order. 62 For the American imperial state, 28 however, the internationalization of the state had a special quality. It ntailed defining the American national interest in terms of acting not only on behalf of its own capitalist class but also on behalf of the extension and reproduction of global capitalism. Th e determination of what this required continued to reflect the particularity of the American state and social formation, but it was increasingly inflected towards a conception of the American states’ role as that of ensuring the survival of ‘free enterprise’ in the US itself through its promotion of free enterprise and free trade internationally. This was classically articulated in President Truman’s famous speech at Baylor University in March 1947 against isolationism: Now, as in the year 1920, we have reached a turning point in history. National economies have been disrupted by the war. The future is uncertain everywhere. Economic policies are in a state of flux. In this atmosphere of doubt and hesitation, the decisive factor will be the type of leadership that the United States gives the world. We are the giant of the economic world. Whether we like it or not, the future pattern of economic relations depends upon us†¦ Our foreign relations, political and economic, are indivisible. 63 The internationalization of the Americans state was fully encapsulated in the National Security Council document NSC-68 of 1950 which (although it remained ‘Top Secret’ until 1975) Kolko calls ‘the most important of all postwar policy documents’. It articulated most clearly the goal of constructing a ‘world environment in which the American system can survive and flourish†¦ Even if there were no Soviet Union we would face the great problem†¦ [that] the absence of order among nations is becoming less and less tolerable. ’64 V 29 This pattern of imperial rule was established in the post-war period of reconstruction, a period that, for all of the economic dynamism of ‘the golden age’, was inherently transitional. The very notion of ‘reconstruction’ posed the question of what might follow once the European and Japanese economies were rebuilt and became competitive with the American, and once the benign circumstances of the post-war years so central to one of the most impressive periods of growth in world history were exhausted. 5 Moreover, peasant and workers’ struggles and rising economic nationalism in the third world (in the wake of the decolonization of the old empires that the American state generally encouraged), and growing working class militancy in the core capitalist countries (under the conditions of near full-employment achieved by the 1960s), were bound to have an impact both on capital’s profits and on the institutions of the post-war institutional order. In less than a generation, the contradictions inherent in the Bretton Woods agreement were exposed. By the time European currencies became fully convertible in 1958, almost all the premises of the 1944 agreement were already in question. The stable exchange rates established by that agreement depended on the capital controls that most countries other than the US maintained after the war. 6 Yet the very internationalization of trade and direct foreign investment that Bretton Woods promoted (along with domestic innovations and competition in mortgages, credit, investment banking and brokerage that strengthened the capacity of the financial sector within the United States) contribu ted to the restoration of a global financial market, the corresponding erosion of capital controls, and the vulnerability of fixed exchange rates. 67 30 Serious concerns over a return to the international economic fragmentation and collapse of the interwar period were voiced by the early sixties as the American economy went from creditor to debtor status, the dollar moved from a currency in desperately short supply to one in surplus, and the dollar-gold standard, which had been embedded in Bretton Woods, began to crumble. 68 In spite, however, of new tensions between the US and Europe and Japan, the past was not replayed. American dominance, never fundamentally challenged, would come to be reorganized on a new basis, and international integration was not rolled back but intensified. This reconstitution of the global order, like earlier developments within global capitalism, was not inevitable. What made it possible what provided the American state the time and political space to renew its global ambitions was that by the time of the crisis of the early seventies, American ideological and material penetration/integration of Europe and Japan was sufficiently pervasive to rule out any retreat from the international economy or any fundamental challenge to the leadership role of the American state. The United States had, of course, established itself as the military protectorate of Europe and Japan, and this was maintained while both were increasingly making their way into American markets. But the crucial factor in cementing the new imperial bond was the centrality of foreign direct investment as the form taken by capital export and international integration in the post-war period. American corporations, in particular, were evolving into the hubs of increasingly dense host-country and cross-border networks amongst suppliers, financiers, and final markets (thereby further enhancing the liberalized trading order as a means of securing even tighter international networks of production). Even where the initial response to the growth of such American investment 31 as hostile, this generally gave way to competition to attract that investment, and then emulation to meet ‘the American challenge’ through counter-investments in the United States (but this hardly meant a rev erse imperialism any more than the extensive Canadian investments in the US did). Unlike trade, American FDI directly affected domestic class structures and state formations in the other core countries. 69 Tensions and alliances that emerged within domestic capitalist classes could no longer be understood in purely ‘national’ terms. German auto companies, for example, followed American auto companies in wanting European-wide markets; and they shared mutual concerns with the American companies inside Germany, such as over the cost of European steel. They had reason to be wary of policies that discriminated in favour of European companies but might, as a consequence, compromise the treatment of their own growing focus on markets and investments in the United States. And if instability in Latin America or other ‘trouble spots’ threatened their own international investments, they looked primarily to the American rather than their own state to defend them. With American capital a social force within each European country, domestic capital tended to be ‘dis-articulated’ as a coherent and independent national bourgeoise. 70 The likelihood that domestic capital might challenge American dominance as opposed to renegotiating the terms of American leadership was considerably diminished. Although the West European and Japanese economies had been rebuilt in the post-war period, the nature of their integration into the global economy tended to tie the successful reproduction of their own social formations to the rules and structures of the Americanled global order. However much the European and Japanese states may have wanted to 32 renegotiate the arrangements struck in 1945, now that only 25% of world production was located in the U. S. proper, neither they nor their bourgeoises were remotely interested in challenging the hegemony that the American informal empire did indeed establish over them. ‘The question for them’, as Poulantzas put it in the early seventies, ‘is rather to reorganize a hegemony that they still accept†¦what the battle is actually over is the share of the cake. ’71 It was in this context that the internationalization of the state became particularly important. In the course of the protracted and often confused renegotiations in the 1970s of the terms that had, since the end of World War Two, bound Europe and Japan to the American empire, their nation states came to accept a responsibility for creating the internal conditions for sustained international accumulation (e. g. stable prices, constraints on labour militancy, national treatment of foreign investment, no restrictions on capital outflows). The real tendencies at work out of the crisis of the 1970s were ‘the internalized transformations of the national state itself, aimed at taking charge of the internationalization of public functions on capital’s behalf’. 72 In this, nation states were not fading away, but adding to their responsibilities. Not that they saw clearly what exactly needed to be done. The established structures of the post-1945 order did not, in themselves, provide a resolution to the generalized pressures on profit rates in the United States and Europe. They did not suggest how the U. S. might revive its economic base so as to consolidate its rule. Nor did they include an answer to how tensions and instabilities would be managed in a world in which the American state was not omnipotent but rather depended, for its rule, on working through other states. The contingent nature of the new order was evidenced by the fact that a ‘solution’ only emerged at the end of the seventies, two full decades after 33 the first signs of trouble, almost a decade after the dollar crisis of the early seventies, and after a sustained period of false starts, confusions, and uncertain experimentation. 3 The first and most crucial response of the Nixon administration, the dramatic end to the convertibility of the American dollar in 1971, restored the American state’s economic autonomy in the face of a threatened rush to gold; and the subsequent devaluation of the American dollar did, at least temporarily, correct the American balance of trade deficit. Yet that response hardly qualified as a solution to the larger issues